-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 0
/
Copy pathCrosbySchaefer2.1.xml
4333 lines (3317 loc) · 222 KB
/
CrosbySchaefer2.1.xml
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
<?xml-model href="http://www.stoa.org/epidoc/schema/latest/tei-epidoc.rng" schematypens="http://relaxng.org/ns/structure/1.0"?>
<TEI xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0">
<teiHeader xml:lang="eng">
<fileDesc>
<titleStmt>
<title type="work">Homeric Greek: a book for beginners</title>
<author>Clyde Pharr</author>
<sponsor>Perseus Project, Tufts University</sponsor>
<principal>Gregory Crane</principal>
<respStmt>
<persName>Gregory Crane</persName>
<resp>Editor-in-Chief, Perseus Digital Library</resp>
</respStmt>
<respStmt>
<resp>Prepared under the supervision of</resp>
<name>Gregory Crane</name>
</respStmt>
<funder>GRC as volunteer.</funder>
</titleStmt>
<extent>About 1MB</extent>
<publicationStmt>
<publisher>Trustees of Tufts University</publisher>
<pubPlace>Medford, MA</pubPlace>
<authority>Perseus Project</authority>
</publicationStmt>
<sourceDesc>
<biblStruct>
<monogr>
<author>Clyde Pharr</author>
<title xml:lang="lat">Homeric Greek: a book for beginners</title>
<imprint>
<pubPlace>Boston</pubPlace>
<publisher>D. C. Heath and Co.</publisher>
<date>1920</date>
</imprint>
</monogr>
</biblStruct>
</sourceDesc>
</fileDesc>
<encodingDesc>
<refsDecl n="CTS">
<cRefPattern n="line" matchPattern="(.+)"
replacementPattern="#xpath(/tei:TEI/tei:text/tei:body/tei:div/tei:sp/tei:l[@n='$1'])">
<p>This pointer pattern extracts line</p>
</cRefPattern>
</refsDecl>
<!-- <refsDecl n="CTS">
<cRefPattern n="card" matchPattern="(\w+)" replacementPattern="#xpath(/tei:TEI/tei:text/tei:body/tei:div/tei:div[@n='$1'])">
<p>This pointer pattern extracts cards</p>
</cRefPattern>
</refsDecl>-->
</encodingDesc>
<profileDesc>
<langUsage>
<language ident="eng">English</language>
<language ident="grc">Greek</language>
<language ident="lat">Latin</language>
</langUsage>
</profileDesc>
<revisionDesc>
<change when="2020-05-30" who="GRC">An initial rough clean-up of OCR through lesson 45 was done in summer 2019. The first rough XML version was begun on May 30, 2020.</change>
</revisionDesc>
</teiHeader>
<text>
<body>
<pb n="1"/>
<div type="textpart" subtype="lesson" n="0">
<head>Introduction</head>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="pref01">
<table>
<row><cell><graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/apobates.jpg?raw=true"/></cell><cell><graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Monument_pedestal_Krates_victory_S399_ancient_agora_museum_Athens.jpg/1280px-Monument_pedestal_Krates_victory_S399_ancient_agora_museum_Athens.jpg"/></cell></row>
</table>
<p><emph>Eager to Go</emph>: Pedestal of the monument dedicated to the victory of Krates in the Apobates (literally,"the person who gets off") race at the Panathenaic Games. A fully armed soldier jumps on and off a moving chariot. The image above is a marble relief from the fourth century BCE and is at the Acropolo Athens, Greece. The original image and more information are available from <ref n="https://www.flickr.com/photos/69716881@N02/32099864256">Egisto Sani on Flickr</ref>. See also the Wikipedia article on this object (<ref n="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?name=Athens,+Acropolis+1326&object=Sculpture">Acropolis 1326</ref>), which is known as the <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apobates_Base">Apobates base.</ref> </p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="pref02"><head>This course</head><p>
This book provides a hybrid approach to learning Ancient that integrates traditional methods with the capabilities provided by digital media. In print culture, readers of ancient languages depended upon static texts that coud not explain themselves.
This book provides a hybrid approach to learning Ancient that integrates traditional methods with the capabilities provided by digital media. In print culture, readers of ancient languages depended upon static texts that coud not explain themselves.
<cit>
<quote>Δαρείου καὶ Παρυσάτιδος γίγνονται παῖδες δύο, πρεσβύτερος μὲν Ἀρταξέρξης, νεώτερος δὲ Κῦρος· ἐπεὶ δὲ ἠσθένει Δαρεῖος καὶ ὑπώπτευε τελευτὴν τοῦ βίου, ἐβούλετο τὼ παῖδε ἀμφοτέρω παρεῖναι.</quote>
<bibl><ref n="https://beyond-translation.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg006.perseus-grc2:1.1.1-1.1.5">Xenophon, Anabasis 1.1.1</ref></bibl>
</cit>
The state of the art of large-scale assisted reading for Greek and Latin in print culture was side-by-side translation, as in the Loeb Classical Library.
<graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/anabasis-loeb.jpg?raw=true"/>
</p><p>
In the early 1990s, the Perseus Digital Library added the ability to generate analyses for each word in the text and links to one or more online dictionaries.
<graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/anabasis-pers4.jpg?raw=true"/>
</p><p>A major new generation of Perseus adds rich linguistic annotation for syntax and other featurs.
<graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/anabasis-bt.jpg?raw=true"/>
</p><p>
You can hack your way through texts in a language that you do not know. But the more you understand about the language to start with, the more you can get out of the automated tools. These new reading environments allow you do to more at an earlier stage of learning but they also enhance your ability to understand the language no matter how much you know. You can exploit automated tools to avoid learning but you can use tools can, if you used well, deepen your understanding of a language.
</p>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="pref02"><head>The Greek Alphabet</head>
<p>The Greek alphabet that we use in modern printed editions is just one particular version. The Greeks copies and adapted the writing system of the Phoenicians, adding vowels and providing a more comprehensive way of capturing sounds. (The Wikipedia article on <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet">the History of the Greek alphabet</ref> is well worth reading.)</p>
<p>Our alphabet includes capital and lower case letters. The capital letters are based on ancient inscriptions and are used (mainly) to identify proper names. Lower case letters are based on later scripts of Greek. We also have accents that Greek scholars in Egypt added in the 3rd century BCE to capture pitch accents that were being lost and replaced by stress accents.</p>
<p>
[The following table is based on that of <ref n="https://dcc.dickinson.edu/grammar/goodell/alphabet">Thomas Dwight Goodell' School Grammar for Greek</ref>.]
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Letter</cell><cell></cell><cell>Sound</cell><cell>Name</cell><cell></cell></row>
<row><cell>Α</cell><cell>α</cell><cell>a in far</cell><cell>ἄλφα</cell><cell>alpha</cell></row>
<row><cell>Β</cell><cell>β</cell><cell>b</cell><cell>βῆτα</cell><cell>beta</cell></row>
<row><cell>Γ</cell><cell>γ</cell><cell>g in go</cell><cell>γάμμα</cell><cell>gamma</cell></row>
<row><cell>Δ</cell><cell>δ</cell><cell>d</cell><cell>δέλτα</cell><cell>delta</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ε</cell><cell>ε</cell><cell>ĕ in met</cell><cell>εἶ / ἒ ψῑλόν</cell><cell>epsilon</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ζ</cell><cell>ζ</cell><cell>dz (but just read it as an English z)</cell><cell>ζῆτα</cell><cell>zeta</cell></row>
<row><cell>Η</cell><cell>η</cell><cell>a as in ace</cell><cell>ἦτα</cell><cell>eta</cell></row>
<row><cell>Θ</cell><cell>θ</cell><cell>th in thin</cell><cell>θῆτα</cell><cell>theta</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ι</cell><cell>ι</cell><cell>ῐ as in brick; ῑ as in creek</cell><cell>ἰῶτα</cell><cell>iota</cell></row>
<row><cell>Κ</cell><cell>κ</cell><cell>k</cell><cell>κάππα</cell><cell>kappa</cell></row>
<row><cell>Λ</cell><cell>λ</cell><cell>l</cell><cell>λάμβδα</cell><cell>lambda</cell></row>
<row><cell>Μ</cell><cell>μ</cell><cell>m</cell><cell>μῦ</cell><cell>mu</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ν</cell><cell>ν</cell><cell>n</cell><cell>νῦ</cell><cell>nu</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ξ</cell><cell>ξ</cell><cell>ks</cell><cell>x in wax</cell><cell>ξεῖ</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ο</cell><cell>ο</cell><cell>ŏ in obey</cell><cell>οὖ / ὂ μῑκρόν</cell><cell>omicron</cell></row>
<row><cell>Π</cell><cell>π</cell><cell>p</cell><cell>πεῖ</cell><cell>πῖ</cell><cell>pei / pi</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ρ</cell><cell>ρ</cell><cell>r</cell><cell>ῥῶ</cell><cell>rho</cell></row>
<row><cell>Σ</cell><cell>σ, ς</cell><cell>s in see</cell><cell>σίγμα</cell><cell>sigma</cell></row>
<row><cell>Τ</cell><cell>τ</cell><cell>t in to</cell><cell>ταῦ</cell><cell>tau</cell></row>
<row><cell>Υ</cell><cell>υ</cell><cell>u</cell><cell>German ü</cell><cell>ὖ</cell><cell>ὖ ψῑλόν</cell><cell>upsilon</cell></row>
<row><cell>Φ</cell><cell>φ</cell><cell>ph in Philip</cell><cell>φεῖ</cell><cell>φῖ</cell><cell>phei / phi</cell></row>
<row><cell>Χ</cell><cell>χ</cell><cell>German ch</cell><cell>χεῖ</cell><cell>χῖ</cell><cell>chei / chi</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ψ</cell><cell>ψ</cell><cell>ps</cell><cell>ψεῖ</cell><cell>ψῖ</cell><cell>psei / psi</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ω</cell><cell>ω</cell><cell>ō</cell><cell>ὦ</cell><cell>ὦ μέγα</cell><cell>omega</cell></row>
</table>
</p>
<p>Greek contains five diacritics.</p>
<p>Three of these describe pitch:
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Accent</cell><cell>Example</cell></row>
<row><cell>acute -- a rising tone</cell><cell>ποταμός</cell></row>
<row><cell>grave -- a sinking tone</cell><cell>ποταμὸς</cell></row>
<row><cell>circumflex -- a tone that rises and falls</cell><cell>Κῦρον</cell></row>
</table>
</p>
<p>The other two diacritics tell you whether or not a word beginning with a vowel has an 'h.' Greek ceased to use the letter 'h.' To show whether a word is aspirated (starts with an 'h') it uses what are called breathing marks.
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Greek</cell><cell>Translit.</cell></row>
<row><cell>"rough" breathing (with an 'h')</cell><cell>ὁ</cell><cell>ho</cell></row>
<row><cell>"smooth" breathing (no 'h')</cell><cell>ἀπὸ</cell><cell>apo</cell></row>
</table>
The breathing marks are often very hard to make out on a computer screen. In practice, we should only show one breathing mark (i.e., for either rough or smooth) but that is not how Greek texts are printed.
</p>
<p>Words from the opening of Xenophon's March Upcountry (Anabasis):
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Greek</cell><cell>new letters</cell></row>
<row><cell>ὁ</cell><cell>['ο']</cell></row>
<row><cell>μὲν</cell><cell>['μ', 'ε', 'ν']</cell></row>
<row><cell>οὖν</cell><cell>['υ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>πρεσβύτερος</cell><cell>['π', 'ρ', 'σ', 'β', 'τ', 'ς']</cell></row>
<row><cell>παρὼν</cell><cell>['α', 'ω']</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἐτύγχανε:</cell><cell>['γ', 'χ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>Κῦρον</cell><cell>['Κ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>δὲ</cell><cell>['δ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>μεταπέμπεται</cell><cell>['ι']</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἀπὸ</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>τῆς</cell><cell>['η']</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἀρχῆς</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἧς</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>αὐτὸν</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>σατράπην</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἐποίησε,</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>καὶ</cell><cell>['κ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>στρατηγὸν</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>δὲ</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>αὐτὸν</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἀπέδειξε</cell><cell>['ξ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>πάντων</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ὅσοι</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἐς</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>Καστωλοῦ</cell><cell>['λ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>πεδίον</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἁθροίζονται.</cell><cell>['θ', 'ζ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἀναβαίνει</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>οὖν</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ὁ</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>Κῦρος</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>λαβὼν</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>Τισσαφέρνην</cell><cell>['Τ', 'φ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>ὡς</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>φίλον,</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>καὶ</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>τῶν</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ἑλλήνων</cell><cell>['Ε']</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἔχων</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ὁπλίτας</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἀνέβη</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>τριακοσίους,</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἄρχοντα</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>δὲ</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>αὐτῶν</cell><cell>[no new letters]</cell></row>
<row><cell>Ξενίαν</cell><cell>['Ξ']</cell></row>
<row><cell>Παρράσιον.</cell><cell>['Π']</cell></row>
</table>
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="lesson" n="1">
<head>Declension ο-stem Nouns</head>
<cit><quote xml:lang="grc">ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος.</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">In the beginning was the word.</quote>
<bibl>John, 1.1</bibl>
</cit>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="1"><head>Declensions.</head>
<p>Greek uses word endings (and to a lesser degree prefixes) far more than languages such as English or Mandarin. English still uses some endings -- English speakers recogngize that "endings" is plural and "ending" is singular. Likewise, English speakers know that the added -s with verbs indicates a singular subject: "she travel*s*" vs. "they travel." Greek has three basic classes of endings for nouns. We will talk about the meanings that these endings convey below. This section introduces the forms.
</p><p>
reek uses word endings (and to a lesser degree prefixes) far more than languages such as English or Mandarin. English still uses some endings -- English speakers recogngize that "endings" is plural and "ending" is singular. Likewise, English speakers know that the added -s with verbs indicates a singular subject: "she travel*s*" vs. "they travel." Greek has three basic classes of endings for nouns. We will talk about the meanings that these endings convey below. This section introduces the forms.
</p><p>
While there are many (!) small variations, all Greek nouns roughly follow the following three patterns. Each pattern for noun formation is traditionally called a "declension." Core examples of the three declensions of Greek include the following:</p>
<p><foreign>ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς, ἡ</foreign>, <gloss>excellence, skill</gloss></p>
<p><foreign>ποταμός, ποταμοῦ, ὁ</foreign>, <gloss>river, stream</gloss></p>
<p><foreign>φύλαξ, φύλακος, ὁ</foreign>, <gloss>guardian</gloss></p>
<p>The entries above provide the nominative singular and the genitive -- if we know those two forms, we can generate all the forms for any (regular) noun.
</p><p>We then add the article to show the gender of the noun. The article ἡ (as we will formally learn later) is the feminine. The article ὁ is masculine. We will also learn the neuter article τό when we encounter neuter nouns in lesson 4.
<table>
<row role="label"><cell></cell><cell>1st Declension/α-stem</cell><cell>2nd Declension/ο-stem</cell><cell>3rd Declension/C-stem</cell></row>
<row><cell>Nom.</cell><cell>ἀρετή</cell><cell>ποταμός</cell><cell>φύλαξ (φύλακ-ς)</cell></row>
<row><cell>Gen.</cell><cell>ἀρετῆς</cell><cell>ποταμοῦ</cell><cell>φύλακ-ος</cell></row>
<row><cell>Dat.</cell><cell>ἀρετῇ</cell><cell>ποταμῷ</cell><cell>φύλακ-ι</cell></row>
<row><cell>Acc.</cell><cell>ἀρετήν</cell><cell>ποταμόν</cell><cell>φύλακ-α (φύλακ-ν)</cell></row>
<row><cell>Tokens</cell><cell>2662</cell><cell>3352</cell><cell>3359</cell></row>
<row><cell>Lemmas</cell><cell>465</cell><cell>473</cell><cell>412</cell></row>
</table>
Crosby and Schaeffer avoid the terms "first/second/third declension" because they chose to start with nouns that have a stem that ends in -ο (omicron, "little o"). They begin with the "second declension" because of "their general uniformity," i.e., because there are fewer small variant ways to generate o-stem nouns. (Second declension nouns use two different endings for nominative and accusative: -ον for the singular, -α for the plural.) Furthermore, o-stem endings are reused for pronouns, adjectives and participles. Once you are familiar with the o-stem endings, you can also understand the case endings on an additional c. 6,981 additional words -- in other words, you will be able to understand the case endings for 10,332 of the tokens (18%) in the <title>Anabasis</title>.
</p><p>
Note: The caveat reflects the fact that the genitive plural ending is common to all three declensions. While automatic count simply assumes that o-stem nouns account for 1/3 of the ambiguous forms, that ambiguity should not significantly affect the overall total.
</p><p>
In the table shows that the frequency of all three classes of noun is comparable in the <title>Anabasis</title>. To understand that, we need to explain two terms: <term>word tokens</term> and <term>lemmata</term>. To understand the difference, consider the following sentence:
<quote>The term tokens describes the number of words in a text.</quote>
If we count each word in this sentence, we will find that there are 11 tokens. Our digital editoin of Xenophon's <title>Anabasis</title> contains 57,245 tokens, i.e, running words of text. The table above shows that, of these 57,245 tokens, 2,662 (4.65%) are α-stem nouns, 3,352 (5.85%) are ο-stem nouns, and 3,357 (5.87%) are consonantal stem nouns.
The term <term>lemmas</term> describes the normalized dictionary form for a word. In the table above, you can see that ποταμός, ποταμοῦ, ποταμῷ, ποταμόν etc. are all forms of the same word. When we look up a noun in a standard Greek dictionary, we look up that first form in the table (the nominative singular). By dividing tokens by lemmas, we can see that each a-stem, o-stem and K-stem lemmas shows up c. 5, 7 and 8 times in the <title>Anabasis</title>, i.e., if you learn a vocab word, you are likely to see it 4, 6 and 7 times again.
O-stem nouns are more frequent than a-stem nouns and roughly as frequent as K-stem nouns. Equally important, o-stem nouns are very simple -- once you have learned the declension in this chapter, you will have only a few variations (for the neuter gender) to learn.</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="2"><head>Ο-Stem Masculines.</head>
<p>Nouns of the ο-declension
whose nominatives end in -ος are usually masculine.</p>
<p><title>ποταμός, ποταμοῦ, ὁ — a river</title>
<table>
<row role="label"><cell></cell><cell>Singular</cell><cell></cell><cell>Plural</cell><cell></cell></row>
<row><cell>Nominative</cell><cell>ὁ ποταμός</cell><cell>the river (subject)</cell><cell>οἱ ποταμοί</cell><cell>the rivers (subject)</cell></row>
<row><cell>Genitive</cell><cell>τοῦ ποταμοῦ</cell><cell>of the river</cell><cell>τῶν ποταμῶν</cell><cell>of the rivers</cell></row>
<row><cell>Dative</cell><cell>τῷ ποταμῷ</cell><cell>to/for the river</cell><cell>τοῖς ποταμοῖς</cell><cell>to/for the rivers</cell></row>
<row><cell>Accusative</cell><cell>τὸν ποταμόν</cell><cell>the river (object)</cell><cell>τοὺς ποταμούς</cell><cell>the rivers (object)</cell></row>
</table>
In like manner inflect ὁ ἀδελφός.</p>
<p>The table above is often called a paradigm, an English word derived from the Greek "paradeigma," "something that you show (deigma) on the side (para)." As noted above, the table from the text book shows the most important forms. If we look at the paradigm illustrating the forms of <foreign>ποταμός</foreign> <gloss>river</gloss> that actually appear in the 20 million word Glaux Trees parsed corpus of Ancient Greek, we can see that there are additional forms that the textbook leaves out but we can also see that the textbook has nicely captured the most important forms.
<graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/potamos-parad.jpg?raw=true"/>
[Screenshot from the <ref n="https://atlas-test.fly.dev/morphology/lemma/349/">Perseus Atlas repository</ref>.]
</p>
<p>
<list>
<item n="1">The same ending appears with both acute (ποταμός) and grave (ποταμὸς) accents. The shift from acute to grave (discussed below) happens when another accented word follows. You can see that, in the corpus, the grave accent is used 697 times and that the acute accent (which the textbook shows you) only appears 271 out of 968 times (27%). A word like ποταμός usually has another accented word following it and appears as ποταμὸς.</item>
<item>You can see that Greek does have instances where we get forms in thedual ("two rivers"), but there are only 3 instances of the dual number.</item>
<item>The textbook leaves out one Greek case: the vocative. The vocative is used when a speaker directly addresses someone. The vocative form ποταμὲ means "O River!" but it only occurs 1 time in 20 million tokens. While this low number reflects the fact that people do not typically address an anonymous river, vocative forms are not very common -- and they are easy (in o-stem nows, just shorten the -ος ending to -ε).</item>
</list>
</p>
<p>
The top 10 o-stem lemmas with identical endings and accent.
<table>
<row role="label"><cell></cell><cell>lemma</cell><cell>freq.</cell><cell>gloss</cell></row>
<row><cell>1</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">στρατηγός</rs></cell><cell>151</cell><cell>the leader</cell></row>
<row><cell>2</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">ποταμός</rs></cell><cell>99</cell><cell>a river, stream</cell></row>
<row><cell>3</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">λοχαγός</rs></cell><cell>90</cell><cell>the leader of an armed band; commander of a company</cell></row>
<row><cell>4</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">θεός</rs></cell><cell>89</cell><cell>god</cell></row>
<row><cell>5</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">σταθμός</rs></cell><cell>55</cell><cell>a standing place, weight</cell></row>
<row><cell>6</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">μισθός</rs></cell><cell>40</cell><cell>wages, pay, hire</cell></row>
<row><cell>7</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">ἀδελφός</rs></cell><cell>20</cell><cell>(of the same mother) brother; adj brotherly, sisterly, akin</cell></row>
<row><cell>8</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">καιρός</rs></cell><cell>14</cell><cell>time; the right moment, opportunity</cell></row>
<row><cell>9</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">Μυσός</rs></cell><cell>10</cell><cell>a Mysian</cell></row>
<row><cell>10</cell><cell><rs type="lemma">ἀριθμός</rs></cell><cell>9</cell><cell>number</cell></row>
<row><cell></cell><cell>All forms</cell><cell>749</cell><cell></cell></row>
</table>
</p>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="2a"><head>Number and Verbs.</head>
<p>
Ancient Greek has endings not only for the singular (e.g., English river vs. rivers) but also has a dual number used to describe pairs (e.g., two hands, two siblings etc.). Because the dual is much less common, many introductory grammars leave it out so that learners can focus on higher frequency features. We will see duals when we look at real primary sources but the digital part of speech annotations will (usually) identify these. You will learn to recognize them as you read more Greek.
</p>
<p>While this lesson focuses on introducing nouns, it also introduces singular and plural forms for three different verbs. These forms allow us to begin generating full sentence and thus to see when we apply each case to a noun.
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Lemma</cell><cell>Short Def</cell><cell>Singular</cell><cell>Plural</cell></row>
<row><cell>εἰμί</cell><cell>to be</cell><cell>ἦν, s/he or it was</cell><cell>ἦσαν, they were</cell></row>
<row><cell>ἔχω</cell><cell>to have, to possess</cell><cell>ἔχει s/he or it has</cell><cell>ἔχουσι, they have</cell></row>
<row><cell>παύω</cell><cell>to stop</cell><cell>παύει s/he or it stops</cell><cell>παύουσι, they stop</cell></row>
<row><cell>πέμπω</cell><cell>to send</cell><cell>πέμπει, s/he or it sends</cell><cell>πέμπουσι, they send</cell></row>
<row><cell>w-stem verbs ending n </cell><cell></cell><cell>-ει 256</cell><cell>-ουσι 132</cell></row>
</table>
Following the patterns above, you could explain and/or generate 256 third person singular forms (s/he or it) and 132 third person plural (they) forms that occur in the Anabasis: e.g.,</p>
<p>ἀναβαίνω, <gloss>to go up, mount, to go up to</gloss>.
<cit>
<quote><emph>ἀναβαίνει</emph> ... ὁ Κῦρος</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">Cyrus goes up.</quote>
<bibl>Xen. Anab. 1.1.2 </bibl>
</cit>
</p><p>ἀγγέλλω, <gloss>to bear a message</gloss>
<cit>
<quote>οἱ αἱρετοὶ <emph>ἀγγέλλουσι</emph> τοῖς στρατιώταις</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">The ones who had been selected bear a message to the soldiers.</quote>
<bibl>Xen. Anab. 1.3.21 </bibl>
</cit>
</p>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="3"><head>Accents.</head>
<p>(a) In nouns of the ο-declension an acute (´) on the ultima in the nominative becomes a
circumflex (῀) in the genitive and dative of both numbers.
</p><p>The acute accent can only occur on (1) the last or the second to last syllable and only on a long syllable.
<pb n="2"/>
</p><p>
(b) An acute on the ultima changes to a grave (`) when a word follows without intervening punctuation:</p>
<p><foreign xml:id="p3.1">ἀδελφὸν ἔχει</foreign>: <gloss target="p3.1">s/he has a brother.</gloss></p>
<p>(c) If the accent on the nominative of an o-stem noun is an acute, the accent is an acute also in the accusative. This makes sense given the statement above, for the accusative singular because that ending is short and cannot bear a circumflex accent. If you remember that a circumflex involves a rising and then a declining tone, it makes sense: the short syllable is not long enough for the up and down tones -- that requires more length. </p>
<p>That said, the accusative plural ending, -ους, is long but it still does not bear a circumflex. The reason is probably that the ending -ους comes from *-ονς and was thus originally short.</p>
<p>The bottom line is that an accented long final syllable can take a circumflex but it does not have to. You just have to remember those places where the long final syllable takes an acute.</p>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="4"><head>Cases.</head>
<p>The different endings give you information about how a noun is used in a sentence. English retains traces of such a system in its pronouns. Thus we can say:
<quote>She saw him.</quote>
But a statement such as the following is simply not grammatical:
<quote>*Him saw she.</quote>
We can, however, within limits violate standard word order for emphasis. Thus, the following sentence is grammatical and emphatic:
<quote>Him she saw!</quote>
Because Greek words have different endings that help you understand the role of a word, Greek word order is more flexible that than of English (or of other languages with little or not inflection, such as French, Mandarin, and Spanish). Thus the Star Wars character Yoda would sound quite idiomatic if translated directly into Ancient Greek -- thus losing some of his charm.
<cit>
<quote>Much to learn you still have.</quote>
<bibl><ref n="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Bu8GcLK6vY">Yoda, Attack of the Clones.</ref></bibl>
</cit>
</p><p>
(a) A noun appears in the nominative when that noun is the subject of a verb or when the noun is the predicate of a verb.
</p><p>
<foreign>οἱ στρατηγοὶ ἦσαν ἀδελφοί</foreign> <gloss>the generals were brothers.</gloss>
"The generals" are the subject of the verb "were" and they are in the nominative. The subject of a typical verb will always be in the nominative. (We will see an exception involving more complicated sentences later but for now subjects are always in the nominative.)
</p><p>
The example above, however, illustrates a second usage of the nominative. We learn that the generals are also brothers. There is no action involved. We simply learn that A is equivalent to B. We say, in this case, that "brothers" is the <term>predicate</term> of "the generals." The technical term predicate is derived from the Latin word praedico, "to proclaim, to state publicly." Thus the predicate is simply something proclaimed or stated about the subject. Because the verb does not involve an action that changes "brothers," "brothers" remains in the nominative.
(b) The genitive suggests a relationship like that expressed
with "of" in English.
It frequently denotes possession :
<foreign>ὁ τοῦ στρατηγοῦ ἀδελφός:</foreign> <gloss>the brother of the general; literally: the of-the-general brother</gloss>
Note that the Greek can use the article to make the relationship unambiguous. Compare a famously ambigous English sentence:
<quote>I saw the person in the park with a telescope.</quote>
Was I using a telescope to see that person? Was that person in the park that has a telescope? Or was the person using the telescope? Any of these interpretations is possible.
</p>
<p>In Greek we could say:
<quote>I saw the with-the-telescope person in the park.</quote>
or
<quote>I saw the person in the with-the-telescope park.</quote>
</p><p>
(c) The dative suggests relations like those with "to" or
"for" in English. "Dative" is derived from the Latin <foreign xml:lang="lat">dare</foreign>, <gloss>to give</gloss> and the classic use of the dative is in a sentence like "he gives a gift to his brother." The dative frequently denotes the indirect object :
<foreign>τῷ στρατηγῷ πέμπει τὸν ἀδελφόν:</foreign> <gloss>s/he sends his brother to the general.</gloss>
We could also say:
<foreign>τῷ ποταμῷ πέμπει στρατηγόν:</foreign> <gloss>s/he sends a general for the river.</gloss>
We could also translate the above as "he sends a general of the river." The point is that the general is dispatched to/for the river, i.e., to be in charge of the river.
</p>
<p>(d) The accusative is the direct object of a transitive
verb. (And, converseley a transitive verb is any verb that can take a direct object in the accusative!)
<foreign>ἀδελφὸν πέμπει</foreign> <gloss>he sends a brother.</gloss>
</p>
<p>(e) The vocative case is used when addressing someone. The textbook does not introduce this case becauxe it is not very common and because it is easy to generate the form. The vocative is often the same as the nominative. In some case, as with o-stems, the vocative is shorted form of the nominative.
</p>
<p>We will learn later in this lesson:
<foreign>ὁ στρατηγός</foreign> <gloss>the general</gloss>
From this we could create the voative:
<foreign>ὦ στρατηγέ</foreign> <gloss>oh general!</gloss>
</p>
<p>This chapter introduces core functions of the most common four Greek cases. Indo-European, the language (or cluster of languages) from which Ancient Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Irish and many other languages derive, had three other cases -- a total of eight.
<list>
<item n="1">The <term>instrumental</term>: "I hammered the nail <emph>by means of a hammer.</emph> In Greek, this function is, as we will see below, taken over by the dative.</item>
<item n="2">The <term>ablative</term> (from Latin ab-latus, "taken/carried away"): "I went <emph>away from the lake</emph>. In Greek, this function is, as we will see below, taken over the genitive.</item>
<item n="3">The <term>locative</term>: "at home," "in the ocean." In Greek, this function is, as we will see below, taken over by the dative.</item>
</list>
Other Indo-European languages preserve some of these cases: Ukrainian and Croatian both have the locative and instrumental case, while Latin contained both a dative and an ablative case.
</p>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="5"><head>The Article.</head>
<p>
(a) Greek does not use an indefinite article in the same way as English. When Greek designates "a river" or "a general" or "a brother," it just uses a form of ποταμός, στρατηγός, or ἀδελφός in the appropriate case.
Greek does have a definite article, i.e., a word that (roughly) corresponds to "the" in English.
<rs type="lemma">ὁ</rs> Like English, and unlike Latin,
Greek has a definite article. This agrees with its noun
in gender, number, and case. It often serves as a possessive pronoun, as my, your, his, etc. ὁ and οἱ are proclitic
(page xxvii).
(b) Greek has no indefinite article. Many Greek nouns having no definite article require the addition of "a" or "an" when translated into English:</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="6"><head>Vocabulary.</head>
<p>The definite article accompanies nouns in vocabularies to show gender. </p>
<p>In the vocabularies derivatives and cognates are printed in small capitals.</p>
<p>In the vocabulary we calculate how often each word appears in Xenophon's Anabasis and then we give you the running total -- how many words in Xenopon you can understand after adding a new word to what you have studied already. </p>
<p>Because we have not yet studied Greek verbs, this lesson gives us six isolated verb forms so that we can start to generate sentences. Four of thses verb forms show up fairly often. Two of them, however, - "s/he stops" and "they stop" -- do not appear ever in the Anabasis. The verb "to stop" does appear but not very oten in the active voice and never in the forms <foreign>παύει</foreign> and <foreign>παύουσι</foreign>. Textbooks use verbs like <foreign>παύει</foreign>, "I stop," because these verbs are morphologically easy to generate. </p>
<list type="vocab">
<item><rs type="lemma">ἀδελφός</rs>, ἀδελφοῦ, ὁ: brother. PHILADELPHIA.</item>
<item><rs type="form">ἔχει</rs>: he, she, or it has,</item>
<item><rs type="form">ἔχουσι</rs>: they have.</item>
<item><rs type="form">ἦν</rs>: he, she, it was; there was.</item>
<item><rs type="form">ἦσαν</rs>: they or there were.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ὁ</rs>, ἡ, τό: the.</item>
<item><rs type="form">παύει</rs>: he, she, or it stops (transitive).</item>
<item><rs type="form">παύουσι</rs>: they stop (transitive).</item>
<item><rs type="form">πέμπει</rs>: he, she, or it sends (transitive).</item>
<item><rs type="form">πέμπουσι</rs>: they send (transitive).</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ποταμός</rs>, ποταμοῦ, ὁ: river, HIPPOPOTAMUS.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">στρατηγός</rs>, στρατηγοῦ, ὁ: general. STRATEGY.</item>
</list>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="6a"><head>Examples from Xenophon.</head>
<p>Predicate nominatives:
<cit>
<quote>τὸ δὲ σύμπαν <emph>δῆλος</emph> <emph>ἦν</emph> <emph>Κῦρος</emph> ὡς σπεύδων πᾶσαν τὴν ὁδὸν.</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">On the whole, <emph>Cyrus</emph> <emph>was</emph> <emph>obvious</emph>, insofar as he was rushing through the whole trip.</quote>
<bibl>Xen. Anab. 1.5.9</bibl>
</cit>
</p><p>We find the expression "general of the Greeks" multiple times:
<cit>
<quote>ἐπειδὴ δὲ πάντας παρήλασε , στήσας τὸ ἅρμα πρὸ τῆς φάλαγγος μέσης , πέμψας Πίγρητα τὸν ἑρμηνέα παρὰ <emph>τοὺς στρατηγοὺς τῶν Ἑλλήνων</emph> ἐκέλευσε προβαλέσθαι τὰ ὅπλα καὶ ἐπιχωρῆσαι ὅλην τὴν φάλαγγα.</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">And when he had passed them all, stationing his chariot in front of the middle of the phalanx (the military formation), and having sent Pigres, the interpreter, to the generals of the Greeks, he ordered them to resent arms and the whole phalanx to move forward. </quote>
<bibl>1.2.17</bibl>
</cit>
<cit><quote>καὶ Κῦρος μεταπεμψάμενος <emph>τοὺς στρατηγοὺς τῶν Ἑλλήνων</emph> ἔλεγεν ὅτι ἡ ὁδὸς ἔσοιτο πρὸς βασιλέα μέγαν εἰς Βαβυλῶνα ·</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">And Cyrus, having summoned <emph>the generals of the Greeks</emph> began to explain that the road would be to Babylon against the Great King.</quote>
<bibl>Xen. Anab. 1.4.11</bibl>
</cit>
NB: μεταπεμψάμενος is a compound of a preverb μετά and the verb πέμπει/πέμπουσι and means "to send over to himself," "to summon."
</p>
<p>The following example includes a predicate nominative and a genitive.
<cit>
<quote>ὥστε <emph>ἄδειπνοι ἦσαν οἱ πλεῖστοι</emph> τῶν Ἑλλήνων</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">The greater number of the Greek were without having eaten (i.e., had not yet eaten)</quote>
<bibl>Xen. Anab. 1.10.19</bibl>
</cit>
<list>
<item>ἄδειπνοι: ἄδειπνος, masculine nominative plural, <gloss>without having eaten</gloss></item>
<item>πλεῖστοι: πολύς, superlative, masculine nominative plural,<gloss>much, many</gloss></item>
<item>τῶν Ἑλλήνων, <gloss>of the Greeks</gloss></item>
</list>
<cit>
<quote>ἐκ ταύτης τῆς χώρας ὁ ἄρχων <emph>τοῖς Ἕλλησιν</emph> <emph>ἡγεμόνα</emph> <emph>πέμπει</emph>.</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">From this territory the ruler of the land sends the Greeks a guide</quote>
<bibl>Xen. Anab. 6.1.15</bibl>
</cit>
<cit>
<quote>οὗτοι δὲ <emph>ξένια</emph> <emph>πέμπουσι</emph> <emph>τοῖς Ἕλλησιν</emph> ἀλφίτων μεδίμνους τρισχιλίους , οἴνου δὲ κεράμια χίλια καὶ πεντακόσια.</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng"><emph>They send</emph> <emph>hospitality gifts</emph> <emph>to the Greeks</emph>: three thousand medimni of flour, and fifteen hundred ceramia of wine. [Watson 1857]</quote>
<bibl>Xen. Anab. 6.1.15</bibl>
</cit>
</p>
<p>
<list>
<item> Ἕλλησιν: Ἕλλην, masculine dative plural, <gloss>Hellen; Greek</gloss>.</item>
<item>ξένια: ξένιος, neuter accusative plural, <gloss>belonging to a friend and guest, hospitable</gloss>.</item>
</list>
| </p>
</div>
<pb n="3"/>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="7"><head>Exercises..</head>
<p>
<list><head>(a) What use of the noun do the <emph>emphasized type</emph> endings suggest?</head>
<item n='1'>ἀδελφ <emph>οῦ</emph></item>
<item n='2'>στρατηγ <emph>ούς</emph></item>
<item n='3'>ποταμ <emph>οῖς</emph></item>
<item n='4'>ποταμ <emph>όν</emph></item>
<item n='5'>ἀδελφ <emph>οί</emph></item>
<item n='6'>ἀδελφ <emph>ός</emph></item>
<item n='7'>στρατηγ <emph>ῶν</emph></item>
<item n='8'>στρατηγ <emph>ῷ</emph></item>
</list>
<list><head>(b) Read aloud in Greek and translate into English :</head>
<item n="1">ἦν στρατηγός.</item>
<item n="2">ἔχει ἀδελφούς.</item>
<item n="3">παύουσι τὸν στρατηγόν.</item>
<item n="4">οἱ στρατηγοὶ ἦσαν ἀδελφοί.</item>
<item n="5">ἦν ποταμὸς.</item>
<item n="6">τῷ στρατηγῷ πέμπει τοὺς ἀδελφούς.</item>
<item n="7">παύει τοὺς στρατηγούς.</item>
</list>
<list><head>(c) Complete these sentences, adding endings and accents :</head>
<item n="1">ὁ στρατηγ--- ἔχει ἀδελφ-- (singular).</item>
<item n="2">ἦσαν ποταμ---.</item>
<item n="3">τοῖς στρατηγ--- πέμπουσι τοὺς ἀδελφ--.</item>
</list>
<table>
<row><cell><graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/peneios.jpg?raw=true"/></cell><cell><graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Tempe1.jpg/1280px-Tempe1.jpg"/></cell></row>
</table>
<figure><graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Tempe1.jpg/1280px-Tempe1.jpg"/><head>ὁ ποταμός</head></figure>
<graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Pineios_river_%28thessaly%29_map.jpg"/>
<figure><head>ὁ ποταμός</head>
<p>This lovely pass, the Vale of Tempe, between Mt. Ossa and Mt. Olympus,
might have proven more troublesome to the Persians than Thermopylae, had
they not found an easier entrance into Greece. The Peneus River, which
winds through it, is one of the few in Greece that never go dry.</p></figure>
<figure><graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/%CE%A0%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%8C%CF%82-Pinios_river.jpg/640px-%CE%A0%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%8C%CF%82-Pinios_river.jpg"/></figure></p>
<pb n="4"/>
</div>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="lesson" n="2">
<head>DECLENSION OF O-STEMS — Continued</head>
<cit>
<quote>πόνος γάρ, ὡς λέγουσιν, εὐκλείας πατήρ.</quote>
<quote>Toil, so they say, is the father of fame.</quote>
<bibl>Euripides, fragment</bibl></cit>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="8"><head>Persistent Accent.</head>
<p>The accent of the nominative
must be learned by observation. It will remain on the
same syllable in the other cases if possible.</p>
<p>An acute on
the penult of a noun of the o-declension remains on that
syllable throughout. </p>
<p>An acute on the antepenult is drawn
to the penult when the ultima is long (§ V, e). Final -οι
of the nominative plural is considered short (§ V, a).
<foreign>ὁ φίλος</foreign> <gloss>the friend</gloss>
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Singular</cell><cell></cell><cell>Plural</cell><cell></cell></row>
<row><cell>ὁ φίλος</cell><cell>the friend [subj]</cell><cell>οἱ φίλοι</cell><cell>English</cell></row>
<row><cell>τοῦ φίλου</cell><cell>of the friend</cell><cell>τῶν φίλων</cell><cell>English</cell></row>
<row><cell>τῷ φίλῷ</cell><cell>to/for the friend</cell><cell>τοῖς φίλοις</cell><cell>English</cell></row>
<row><cell>τὸν φίλον</cell><cell>the friend [obj]</cell><cell>τοὺς φίλους</cell><cell>English</cell></row>
</table>
<foreign>ὁ δίκαιος </foreign> <gloss>the just person</gloss>
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Singular</cell><cell></cell><cell>Plural</cell><cell></cell></row>
<row><cell>ὁ δίκαιος</cell><cell>the just person [subj]</cell><cell>οἱ δίκαιοι</cell><cell>the just people [subj]</cell></row>
<row><cell>τοῦ δικαίου</cell><cell>of the just person</cell><cell>τῶν δικαίων</cell><cell>of the just people</cell></row>
<row><cell>τῷ δικαίῳ</cell><cell>to/for the just person</cell><cell>τοῖς δικαίοις</cell><cell>to/for the just people</cell></row>
<row><cell>τὸν δίκαιον</cell><cell>the just person [obj]</cell><cell>τοὺς δικαίους</cell><cell>the just people [obj]</cell></row>
</table>
</p>
<p>In most case, we generate an adverb by using the ending -ως:
<foreign>δίκαιος</foreign> <gloss>δικαίως</gloss>
<foreign>ἄξιος</foreign> <gloss>ἀξίως</gloss>
</p><p>
In like manner inflect ὁ πόλεμος.
</p>
<p>Adjectives adopt the gender, number and case of the nouns they modify. As noted above, there are three broad ways of producing Greek nouns. The word Ἕλληνες is, for example, the consontant-stem nominative masculine plural form of Ἕλλην, Ἕλληνος, ὁ, "Greek male" or "Greeks" (when there is a group with men and women. To describe one or more Greek women, the word be Ἑλληνίς, Ἑλληνίδος, ἡ, "Greek woman.")
</p><p>
If we want to say "three just Greeks", we would produce
<foreign>οἱ δίκαιοι Ἕλληνες</foreign>, i.e., we would not change the way we generate the masculine nominative plural of δίκαιος. We generate the o-stem form for the adjective even though it is modifying a consontantal-stem noun.
<pb n="5"/></p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="9"><head>Genitive of Place from Which.</head><p> The genitive with
many prepositions denotes place from which. This is our second use of the genitive (§ 4). </p>
<p>Indo-European</p>
<p>
<foreign>τὸν ἄνθρωπον πέμπει ἀπὸ τοῦ ποταμοῦ.</foreign> <gloss>he sends the man from the river.</gloss>
<foreign>τὸν ἄνθρωπον πέμπει ἐκ τοῦ ποταμοῦ.</foreign> <gloss>he sends the man out of the river.</gloss>
<table>
<row><cell><graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/megalop.jpg?raw=true"/></cell><cell><graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Arcadian_Gate.jpg/2560px-Arcadian_Gate.jpg"/></cell></row>
</table>
<figure><head>The ARCADIAN GATE</head><p>The walls of Messene still testify to the engineering skill and daring of the victor of Leuctra. Note particularly the central doorpost of this great gate. It is nearly nineteen feet long.</p></figure>
</p>
<p>GRC: The <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra">Battle of Leuctra</ref> in 371 BCE led the permanent elimination of Spartan power. The battle itself might have been a temporary setback but the Boeotians followed up by invading the Peloponnese and the founding of <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messene">Messene</ref> as a defensible city in Messenia. Much of Spartan power had been based upon using terror to keep the inhabitants of Messenia as a subject population. The permanent liberation of Messenia drastically reduced the amount of labor and of resources that Spartans could extract.</p>
<p>
<graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png/973px-Spartan_Territory_Before_371_BC.png"/>
<graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/leuctra-gmap.jpg?raw=true"/></p>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="10"><head>Vocabulary</head><p>
<list type="vocab">
<item><rs type="lemma">ἄνθρωπος</rs>, ἀνθρώπου, ὁ: person, human being. When used with the feminine article, this noun can explicitly designate a female person. ANTHROPOLOGY</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ἄξιος</rs>: worthy, worth. AXIOM</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ἀπό</rs>: prep. with G.: from, away from, Lat. ab. APOSTLE.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">δίκαιος</rs> : just.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">Ἑλλήσποντος</rs>, Ἑλλησπόντου, ὁ: Hellespont, the Dardanelles.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ἐκ</rs>: (before consonants), ἐξ (before vowels), proclit. prep. with G. out of, from. Lat. ex. ECLECTIC.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">μακρός</rs>: large. MACRON. MACROECONOMICS.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">μικρός</rs>: [μῑκρός] small. MICROSCOPIC. MICROECONOMICS</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">πόλεμος</rs>: war.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">πολέμιος</rs> : hostile, i.e., people with whom you have a war; οἱ πολέμιοι: the enemy (people with whom you are at war -- we will learn another word for personal enemies). POLEMIC.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">φίλος</rs>: friend. PHILANTHROPIST.</item>
</list>
On μακρός and μικρός: Adjectives in -ρος usually have the acute on the last syllable.
</p></div>
<pb n="6"/>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="11"><head>Translation Hints.</head>
<p>1. Learn all words given in vocabularies.</p>
<p>2. Learn all forms as they are presented.</p>
<p>3. Read the Greek aloud, noting word groups.</p>
<p>4. Translate.
<graphic url="https://github.com/gregorycrane/CrosbySchaeffer2.0/blob/main/chaps/images/pericles.jpg?raw=true"/>
<graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Pericles_Pio-Clementino_Inv269.jpg"/>
<figure><head>Pericles</head>
<p>The most brilliant period in Athenian history is justly called the Age
of Pericles. His home was the haunt
of sculptor and architect, poet and
philosopher. To him we owe above
all the planning and construction of
the matchless Parthenon.</p></figure>
</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="12"><head>Exercises</head><p>
(a) Translate :
<list>
<item n="1">τοὺς πολεμίους παύουσιν.1</item>
<item n="2">τὸν ἄνθρωπον πέμπει ἀπὸ τοῦ Ἑλλησπόντου.</item>
<item n="3">οἱ ἀδελφοὶ ἦσαν μῑκροί.</item>
<item n="4">τοὺς φίλους πέμπουσιν1 ἐκ τοῦ ποταμοῦ.</item>
<item n="5">ὁ πόλεμος ἦν δίκαιος.</item>
<item n="6">οἱ πολέμιοι ἀξίους στρατηγοὺς ἔχουσιν.</item>
<item n="7">ὁ στρατηγὸς τοὺς ἀνθρώπους πέμπει τῷ ἀδελφῷ.</item>
<item n="8">οἱ ἄνθρωποι ἔχουσιν ἀξίους ἀδελφούς.</item>
</list>
Note 1: -ν is usually added to words ending in -σι before a word beginning with a vowel or at the end of the sentence. This is call the ν-movable.
</p><p>
(b) Complete:
<list>
<item n="1">οἱ πολεμ--- ἦσαν μακρ---.</item>
<item n="2">τὸν ἀδελφ-- πέμπει ἐκ τ--- ποταμ- (singular).</item>
<item n="3">οἱ στρατηγοὶ τοὺς φίλους πεμπ-- τῷ ἀνθρωπ--.</item>
</list>
</p>
<pb n="7"/>
</div>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="lesson" n="3">
<head>PRESENT INDICATIVE AND INFINITIVE ACTIVE OF ω-VERBS</head>
<cit><quote>οἱ γὰρ πόνοι τίκτουσι τὴν εὐανδρίᾱν.</quote>
<quote>Labor begets manhood. Literally: For toils beget manhood.</quote><bibl>Euripides, fragment.</bibl></cit>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="13"><head>The Present Tense.</head><p>The present tense denotes action occurring or continuing or repeated in present time:
<foreign>παύω</foreign> <gloss>I stop. I am stopping. I keep stopping. I do stop.</gloss>
Present Indicative Active or παύω <gloss>I stop</gloss></p>
<p>
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Greek</cell><cell>English</cell><cell>Greek</cell><cell>English</cell></row>
<row><cell>παύω</cell><cell>I stop</cell><cell>παύομεν</cell><cell>we stop</cell></row>
<row><cell>παύεις</cell><cell>you (sg) stop</cell><cell>παύετε</cell><cell>you (pl) stop</cell></row>
<row><cell>παύει</cell><cell>s/he or it stops</cell><cell>παύουσι</cell><cell>they stop</cell></row>
</table>
</p><p>Frequency of this paradigm in the Anabasis.
<table>
<row role="label"><cell>Freq</cell><cell>Ending</cell><cell>Freq</cell><cell>Ending</cell></row>
<row><cell>85</cell><cell>-ω</cell><cell>26</cell><cell>-ομεν</cell></row>
<row><cell>26</cell><cell>-εις</cell><cell>34</cell><cell>-ετε</cell></row>
<row><cell>256</cell><cell>-ει</cell><cell>132</cell><cell>-ουσι</cell></row>
</table>
</p>
<p>Present Infintive Active: παύ-ειν
</p><p>
In like manner inflect ἐθέλω.</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="14"><head>Verb Structure.</head>
<p>(a) In the inflection of a verb
the stem is of fundamental importance. On it are built
the various forms. παύ- is the stem of παύω.
(b) Tense is denoted by appropriate suffixes or prefixes.
The tense suffix of the present is called the variable vowel,
written ε/ο, ο being used before μ or ν, ε elsewhere.
(c) A personal ending is attached to complete the verb.
In the present indicative active the personal ending is
clearly seen only in the first and second persons plural.</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="15"><head>Verb Accent.</head>
<p>In § 8 we saw that the accent of
nouns was persistent. That of verbs is recessive, that is,
<pb n="8"/>
it goes back toward the beginning of the word as far as
the quantity of the ultima will permit. This means that
the accent stands on the antepenult if the ultima is short;
on the penult if the ultima is long -
ἐθέλω, ἐθέλομεν.</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="16"><head>Dative with Adjectives.</head>
<p>The dative is used with many adjectives expressing friendliness, hostility, association, fitness, and the like: 1
<foreign>πολέμιος ἦν τῷ στρατηγῷ</foreign> <gloss>he was hostile to the general.</gloss>
</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="17"><head>Vocabulary</head>
<list type="vocab">
<item><rs type="lemma">ἀγαθός</rs>, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν: good, brave. AGATHA.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ἄγγελος</rs>, ἀγγέλου, ὁ: messenger. ANGEL.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ἄγω</rs>: lead, Lat. ago.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">γράφω</rs>: write. TELEGRAPH. LITHOGRAPH.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ἐθέλω</rs>: wish, be willing.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">ἵππος</rs>, ἵππου, ὁ: horse. ANALYSIS. HIPPOPOTAMUS,</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">καί</rs>: conj.: and, also, even.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">καλός</rs>, καλή, καλόν: beautiful, honorable, fine.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">κίνδυνος</rs>, κινδύνου, ὁ: danger.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">λίθος</rs>, λίθος, ὁ: stone.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">λύω</rs>: loose, break, destroy.</item>
<item><rs type="lemma">παύω</rs>: stop (trans,). PAUSE.</item>
</list>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="18"><head>Vocabulary Notes</head>
<p>The defintions offered for καλός and ἀγαθός demonstrate that both are very positive terms. Each is sometimes translated as "good," "noble" and "honorable." In general, however, καλός describes people and things that are attractive and appealing to us, while ἀγαθός tends to address positive qualities that are not superficial. Thus we get the contrast between men who may be physically attractive but may or may not be courageous. This emerges in a passage from the Anabasis (<ref n="https://scaife-dev.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg006.perseus-grc2:7.4.7-7.4.8?right=perseus-eng2">7.4.7-7.4.8</ref> which describes a company of physically attractive (καλός) soldiers but emphasizes that one of them (at least) was also a "good man" (ἀγαθός). The conclusion of this passage captures this distinction:
<cit>
<quote>λόχον ποτὲ συνελέξατο σκοπῶν οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἢ εἴ τινες εἶεν καλοί, καὶ μετὰ τούτων ἦν ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός.</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">he had once assembled a company considering nothing else except whether a man was handsome (καλός), and with these men he was a brave man (ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός.).</quote>
<bibl n="https://scaife-dev.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0032.tlg006.perseus-grc2:7.4.7-7.4.8?right=perseus-eng2">Xen. Anab. 7.4.8</bibl>
</cit> </p>
<p>The adjective καλός as a compliment plays a significant role in Athenian vases of the early fifth century. People would add the formula "so-and-son is καλός. The phrase Λεαγρὸς καλός ("Leagros is attractive," or, perhaps more accurately, "Leagros is hot!") was particularly common and may reflect the popularity of one particular figure. An separate Wikipedia page dedicated to <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalos_inscription">Kalos inscriptions</ref> has appeared (reflecting the interest that this topic has attracted in the 21st century as well).</p>
<p>You can see an example of this practice on a famous vase from the Louvre (c. 485-480 BCE). This vase would have been produced in the years after the Athenians had defeated <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_the_Great">Darius I</ref> and his Persian army at <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon">Marathon</ref> and just before <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_I">Xerxes</ref>, Darius' son, would invade Greece in 480 BCE and temporarily <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens">occupy (and destroy) Athens</ref>. The vase illustrates a deeply emotional scene from Greek mythology: the goddess Eos (Dawn) holds the dead body of her mortal son, whom Achilles had just killed.
<graphic url="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Eos_Memnon_Louvre_G115.jpg"/>
<graphic url="images/hermogkalos.jpg"/>
The inscription is ΗΕΡΜΟΓΕΝΕΣ ΚΑΛΟΣ, which is Ἑρμογένης καλός in normalized Greek. Note that this Athenian vase uses the Η to indicate aspiration (as with the English 'h') rather than the long ê (as in êta, η).
</p><p><graphic url="images/dourispanted.jpg"/> Two of the other inscriptions are worth looking at. one includes ΗΕΟΣ and ΔΟΡΙΣ ΕΓΡΑΦΣΕΝ, equivalent to Ἐώς and Δοῦρις ἔγραψεν ("Douris wrote/scratched", i.e. Douris was the painter). Instead of a -ψ- we get -φσ-. Note the vase uses a single -Ο- sound that we write as -ου-.
</p><p><graphic url="images/memnon.jpg"/>A second inscription includes ΜΕΜΝΟΝ (the hero Μέμνων) ΚΑΛΙΑΔΕΣ ΕΠΟΙΕΣΕΝ (Καλλιάδης ἐποιήσεν, "Calliades made [it]," i.e., Calliades was the potter). There is an additional inscription (not shown in detail) that includes a nonsense inscription (i.e., letters for decorative effect).
</p>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="18"><head>Exercises.</head>
<p>
(a) What do the portions in heavy type tell as to the person
and number of the subject ?
<list>
<item n="1">ἄγ-<emph>ουσι</emph></item>
<item n="2">λύο-<emph>μεν</emph></item>
<item n="3">ἔχ-<emph>ετε</emph></item>
<item n="4">ἐθέλ-<emph>ω</emph></item>
<item n="5">γράφ-<emph>εις</emph></item>
</list>
</p><p>
(b) Translate:
<list>
<item n="1">ἔχομεν τοὺς καλοὺς λίθους.</item>
<item n="2">ἐθέλω τῷ ἀγαθῷ ἀνθρώπῳ γράφειν.</item>
<item n="3">καὶ ὁ στρατηγὸς τὸν ἄγγελον ἄγει ἀπὸ τοῦ Ἑλλησπόντου.</item>
<item n="4">οἱ ἀδελφοὶ ἐθέλουσι τοὺς ἵππους παύειν.</item>
<item n="5">ὁ ἄγγελος ἔχει ἀγαθὸν ἵππον.</item>
<item n="6">τοὺς φίλους ἐθέλομεν ἄγειν ἐκ τοῦ κινδύνου.</item>
<item n="7">οἱ πολέμιοι λύουσι τοὺς τῶν στρατηγῶν ἵππους.</item>
<item n="8">ὁ στρατηγὸς πολέμιος ἦν τοῖς ἀγγέλοις,</item>
</list>
<pb n="9"/>
</p><p>
(c)
<list>
<item n="1">οἱ ἀδελφοὶ ἐθέλουσι γραφ--.</item>
<item n="2">ἐθέλομεν τοὺς ἵππους ἀγ-- ἐκ τοῦ ποταμ--.</item>
<item n="3">οἱ ἄγγελοι πολέμιοι ἦσαν τι-- στρατηγ- (singular).</item>
</list>
</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="18b"><head>An immortal horse</head>
<p>This is one of the precious bits of sculpture from the eastern pediment of the Parthenon.
</p><p>
<graphic url="images/parthhorse.jpg"/>
<graphic url="images/mid_00018006_001.jpg"/>British Museum (for now) 1816.0610.98: avaiable <ref n="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1816-0610-98">here</ref> via <ref n="https://iiif.io/">IIIF</ref> [GRC: Is this the same object as the one in the original Crosby and Schaeffer?].
</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="19">
<p>(a) Translation Hints
<list>
<item n="1">Read the entire English sentence, noting how the words are related.</item>
<item n="2">Call to mind Greek words with meanings like thosein English.</item>
<item n="3">Consider the changes in form needed to express the relations suggested by the English.</item>
<item n="4">Form the Greek sentence mentally and say it aloud before starting to write.</item>
<item n="5">Write the sentence, with accents and breathings.</item>
</list>
</p><p>
(b) Write in Greek :
<list>
<item n="1">The brothers were small.</item>
<item n="2">They are sending the man to the general.</item>
<item n="3">The general is sending the enemy away from the river.</item>
<item n="4">He sends the man out of the river.</item>
<item n="5">They were brothers of the general.</item>
</list>
</p></div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="20">
<p>Βρεκεκεκὲξ κοὰξ κοάξ. </p>
<p>This is the famous refrain of the frog chorus in Aristophanes’ comedy, The Frogs. In unison with this unceasing chant Dionysus rows Charon’s boat across the Styx. It is the basis of Yale’s well-known yell. <note>GRC: The "it is" is the America of the 1920s. This Greek phrase was the basis of the Yale "Long Cheer," first publicly used in 1884 and continued through the 1960s: basic information in the <ref n="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Frogs">Wikipedia Entry on the Frogs</ref> with links to Yale Alumni Magazines with details.</note></p>
<pb n="10"/>
</div>
</div>
<div type="textpart" subtype="lesson" n="4">
<head>DECLENSION OF O-STEM NEUTERS</head>
<cit>
<quote>πᾶν δένδρον ἀγαθὸν καρποὺς καλοὺς ποιεῖ.</quote>
<quote xml:lang="eng">Every good tree bringeth forth good fruit. </quote>
<bibl n="https://scaife.perseus.org/reader/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0031.tlg001.perseus-grc2:7.17?right=perseus-eng2">Matthew, VII. 17.</bibl>
</cit>
<div type="textpart" subtype="para" n="21">
<p>Ο-Stem Neuters. These nouns have a nominative
ending in -ον. They differ from masculines only in the
nominative singular and the nominative and accusative
plural.</p>
<p>As in Latin, nominative and accusative of neuters are
identical in form. In the plural they end in a (Latin a).
τὸ ἄξιον δῶρον
the valuable gift
<table><row role="label"><cell>Greek</cell><cell>English</cell><cell>Greek</cell><cell>English</cell></row>
<row><cell>the valuable gift [nom]</cell><cell>τὸ ἄξιον δῶρον</cell><cell>the valuable gifts [nom]</cell><cell>τὰ ἄξια δῶρα</cell></row>
<row><cell>of the valuable gift</cell><cell>τοῦ ἀξίου δώρου</cell><cell>of the valuable gifts</cell><cell>τῶν ἀξίων δώρων</cell></row>
<row><cell>by means of the valuable gift</cell><cell>τῷ ἀξίῳ δώρῳ</cell><cell>by means of the valuable gifts</cell><cell>τοῖς ἀξίοις δώροις</cell></row>
<row><cell>the valuable gift [acc]</cell><cell>τὸ ἄξιον δῶρον</cell><cell>the valuable gift [acc]</cell><cell>τὰ ἄξια δῶρα</cell></row>