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<div class="document" id="c-crash-course-for-c-programmers">
<h1 class="title">C++ crash course for C programmers</h1>
<table class="docinfo" frame="void" rules="none">
<col class="docinfo-name" />
<col class="docinfo-content" />
<tbody valign="top">
<tr><th class="docinfo-name">Author:</th>
<td><a class="first reference external" href="http://www.loria.fr/~rougier">Nicolas P. Rougier</a></td></tr>
<tr class="field"><th class="docinfo-name">Sources:</th><td class="field-body"><a class="reference external" href="crash-course.rst">crash-course.rst</a></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="contents local topic" id="contents">
<ul class="auto-toc simple">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#foreword" id="id6">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Foreword</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#from-c-to-c" id="id7">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From C to C++</a><ul class="auto-toc">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#input-output" id="id8">2.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Input/Output</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#new-delete" id="id9">2.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;New/Delete</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#references" id="id10">2.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;References</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#default-parameters" id="id11">2.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Default parameters</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#namespaces" id="id12">2.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Namespaces</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#overloading" id="id13">2.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Overloading</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#const-inline" id="id14">2.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Const &amp; inline</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#mixing-c-and-c" id="id15">2.8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mixing C and C++</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exercises" id="id16">2.9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercises</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes" id="id17">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Classes</a><ul class="auto-toc">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#constructors" id="id18">3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Constructors</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#destructor" id="id19">3.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Destructor</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#access-control" id="id20">3.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Access control</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#initialization-list" id="id21">3.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Initialization list</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#operator-overloading" id="id22">3.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Operator overloading</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#friends" id="id23">3.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Friends</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exercices" id="id24">3.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#inheritance" id="id25">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Inheritance</a><ul class="auto-toc">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#basics" id="id26">4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Basics</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#virtual-methods" id="id27">4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Virtual methods</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#abstract-classes" id="id28">4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Abstract classes</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#multiple-inheritance" id="id29">4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Multiple inheritance</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id1" id="id30">4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#exceptions" id="id31">5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exceptions</a><ul class="auto-toc">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-zen-of-python" id="id32">5.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Zen of Python</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#catch-me-if-you-can" id="id33">5.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Catch me if you can</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#creating-your-own-exception" id="id34">5.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creating your own exception</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-exceptions" id="id35">5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Standard exceptions</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id2" id="id36">5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#streams" id="id37">6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Streams</a><ul class="auto-toc">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iostream-and-ios" id="id38">6.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;iostream and ios</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#class-input-output" id="id39">6.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Class input/output</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#working-with-files" id="id40">6.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Working with files</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#working-with-strings" id="id41">6.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Working with strings</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id3" id="id42">6.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#templates" id="id43">7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Templates</a><ul class="auto-toc">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#template-parameters" id="id44">7.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Template parameters</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#template-function" id="id45">7.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Template function</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#template-class" id="id46">7.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Template class</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#template-specialization" id="id47">7.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Template specialization</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id4" id="id48">7.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-template-library" id="id49">8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Standard Template Library</a><ul class="auto-toc">
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#containers" id="id50">8.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Containers</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#iterators" id="id51">8.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Iterators</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#algorithms" id="id52">8.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Algorithms</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#id5" id="id53">8.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#external-links" id="id54">9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;External links</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="foreword">
<h1>1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Foreword</h1>
<p>This is an introduction to C++ for C programmers:</p>
<ul>
<li><p class="first">If you can't understand the code below, you'd better start with a C tutorial.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">main</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">printf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;Hello World!</span><span class="se">\n</span><span class="s">&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</li>
<li><p class="first">If you don't know what are the stack and the heap, you'd better have a look at
some architecture &amp; system introduction.</p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">If you know java, that might help a bit.</p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">If you think <a class="reference external" href="http://www.python.org">python</a> is cool, you're right, but
still, this is not the place.</p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">If you never heard about <a class="reference external" href="http://www2.research.att.com/~bs/">Bjarne Stroustrup</a>, you might be at the right place.</p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Here is a list of C++ specific keywords:</p>
<pre class="literal-block">
asm         dynamic_cast  namespace  reinterpret_cast  try
bool        explicit      new        static_cast       typeid
catch       false         operator   template          typename
class       friend        private    this              using
const_cast  inline        public     throw             virtual
delete      mutable       protected  true              wchar_t
</pre>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="from-c-to-c">
<h1>2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;From C to C++</h1>
<p>Even if C++ is slanted toward object-oriented programming (OOP), you can
nevertheless use any c++ compiler to compile c code and benefits from some c++
goodies.</p>
<div class="section" id="input-output">
<h2>2.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Input/Output</h2>
<p>Prefer the use of <tt class="docutils literal">&lt;iostream&gt;</tt> for input/output operations (see stream
section for explanation).</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Please enter an integer value: &quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cin</span> <span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">i</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;The value you entered is &quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">i</span>  <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="new-delete">
<h2>2.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;New/Delete</h2>
<p>The <tt class="docutils literal">new</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">delete</tt> keywords are used to allocate and free memory. They
are &quot;object-aware&quot; so you'd better use them instead of <tt class="docutils literal">malloc</tt> and
<tt class="docutils literal">free</tt>. In any case, never cross the streams (new/free or malloc/delete).</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">new</span> <span class="kt">int</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">delete</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">;</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">new</span> <span class="kt">int</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">];</span>
<span class="k">delete</span> <span class="p">[]</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre>
<p><tt class="docutils literal">delete</tt> does two things: it calls the destructor and it deallocates the
memory.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="references">
<h2>2.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;References</h2>
<p>A reference allows to declare an alias to another variable. As long as the
aliased variable lives, you can use indifferently the variable or the alias.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">;</span>

<span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">42</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">x</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre>
<p>References are extremely useful when used with function arguments since it
saves the cost of copying parameters into the stack when calling the function.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="default-parameters">
<h2>2.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Default parameters</h2>
<p>You can specify default values for function parameters. When the function is
called with fewer parameters, default values are used.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">2</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">;}</span>

<span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">endl</span>
     <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">endl</span>
     <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre>
<p>You should obtain values 4, 5 and 6.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="namespaces">
<h2>2.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Namespaces</h2>
<p>Namespace allows to group classes, functions and variable under a common scope
name that can be referenced elsewhere.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">namespace</span> <span class="n">first</span>  <span class="p">{</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">var</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">namespace</span> <span class="n">second</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">var</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">var</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">endl</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">second</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">var</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre>
<p>You should obtain values 3 and 5. There exists some standard namespace in the
standard template library such as std.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="overloading">
<h2>2.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Overloading</h2>
<p>Function overloading refers to the possibility of creating multiple functions
with the same name as long as they have different parameters (type and/or
number).</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">;}</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">;}</span>
</pre>
<p>It is not legal to overload a function based on the return type (but you can do it
<a class="reference external" href="http://stackoverflow.com/questions/442026/function-overloading-by-return-type">anyway</a>)</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="const-inline">
<h2>2.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Const &amp; inline</h2>
<p>Defines and macros are bad if not used properly as illustrated below</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#define SQUARE(x) x*x
</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SQUARE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">);</span>
</pre>
<p>For constants, prefer the const notation:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">two</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre>
<p>For macros, prefer the inline notation:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="kr">inline</span> <span class="n">square</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">x</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="mixing-c-and-c">
<h2>2.8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mixing C and C++</h2>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#ifdef __cplusplus
</span><span class="k">extern</span> <span class="s">&quot;C&quot;</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="cp">#endif

#include &quot;some-c-code.h&quot;

#ifdef __cplusplus
</span><span class="p">}</span>
<span class="cp">#endif
</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="exercises">
<h2>2.9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercises</h2>
<ol class="arabic">
<li><p class="first">Write a basic makefile for compiling sources</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/Makefile">Makefile</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">How would you declare:</p>
</li>
</ol>
<blockquote>
<ul class="simple">
<li>A pointer to a char</li>
<li>A constant pointer to a char</li>
<li>A pointer to a constant char</li>
<li>A constant pointer to a constant char</li>
<li>A reference to a char</li>
<li>A reference to a constant char</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-2.1.cc">crash-course-2.1.cc</a></p>
</blockquote>
<ol class="arabic simple" start="3">
<li>Create  a two-dimensional array of  integers (size is  n x n), fill  it with
corresponding indices (a[i][j] = i*n+j), test it and finally, delete it.</li>
</ol>
<blockquote>
<strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-2.2.cc">crash-course-2.2.cc</a></blockquote>
<ol class="arabic simple" start="4">
<li>Write a function that swap two integers, then two pointers.</li>
</ol>
<blockquote>
<strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-2.3.cc">crash-course-2.3.cc</a></blockquote>
<ol class="arabic" start="5">
<li><p class="first">Is this legal ?</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">add</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</li>
</ol>
<blockquote>
<strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-2.4.cc">crash-course-2.4.cc</a></blockquote>
<ol class="arabic simple" start="6">
<li>Write a <tt class="docutils literal">const correct</tt> division function.</li>
</ol>
<blockquote>
<strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-2.5.cc">crash-course-2.5.cc</a></blockquote>
<ol class="arabic simple" start="7">
<li>What's the difference between <tt class="docutils literal">int const* p</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">int* const p</tt>
and <tt class="docutils literal">int const* const p</tt> ?</li>
</ol>
<blockquote>
<strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-2.6.cc">crash-course-2.6.cc</a></blockquote>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="classes">
<h1>3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Classes</h1>
<p>A class migh be considered as an extended concept of a data structure: instead
of holding only data, it can hold both data and functions. An object is an
instantiation of a class. By default, all attributes and functions of a class
are private (see below Access control). If you want a public default behavior,
you can use keyword <tt class="docutils literal">struct</tt> instead of keyword <tt class="docutils literal">class</tt> in the declaration.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="p">};</span>

<span class="k">struct</span> <span class="n">Bar</span> <span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">attribute</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="p">};</span>

<span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="c1">// WRONG
</span>
<span class="n">Bar</span> <span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">bar</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">attribute</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>  <span class="c1">// OK
</span>
</pre>
<div class="section" id="constructors">
<h2>3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Constructors</h2>
<p>It is possible to specify zero, one or more constructors for the class.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Foo constructor 1 called&quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Foo constructor 2 called&quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
<span class="p">};</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="n">foo_1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">foo_2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="destructor">
<h2>3.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Destructor</h2>
<p>There can be only one destructor per class. It takes no argument and returns
nothing.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="o">~</span><span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Foo destructor called&quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">();</span>
    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
<p>Note that you generally never need to explicitly call a destructor.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="access-control">
<h2>3.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Access control</h2>
<p>You can have fine control over who is granted access to a class function or
attribute by specifying an explicit access policy:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li><strong>public</strong>:    Anyone is granted access</li>
<li><strong>protected</strong>: Only derived classes are granted access</li>
<li><strong>private</strong>:   No one but friends are granted access</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="initialization-list">
<h2>3.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Initialization list</h2>
<p>Object's member should be initialized using initialization lists</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
<p>It's cheaper, better and faster.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="operator-overloading">
<h2>3.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Operator overloading</h2>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">private</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span>

<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="p">};</span>

    <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="k">operator</span><span class="o">+</span> <span class="p">(</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">other</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span>
        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">_value</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="p">}</span>

    <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="k">operator</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="p">(</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">other</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="p">{</span>
        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">_value</span> <span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">other</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">_value</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="p">}</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="friends">
<h2>3.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Friends</h2>
<p>Friends are either functions or other classes that are granted privileged
access to a class.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="k">friend</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">ostream</span><span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="k">operator</span><span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">ostream</span><span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span>
                                      <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">that</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span>
        <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">that</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">private</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="kt">double</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">};</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
  <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">;</span>
  <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Foo object: &quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
  <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="exercices">
<h2>3.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</h2>
<ol class="arabic">
<li><p class="first">Why the following code doesn't compile ?</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="p">()</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="p">};</span> <span class="p">};</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-3.1.cc">crash-course-3.1.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a <tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt> class with default and copy constructors and add also an
assignment operator. Write some code to highlight the use of each of them.</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-3.2.cc">crash-course-3.2.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a <tt class="docutils literal">Point</tt> class that can be constructed using cartesian or polar
coordinates.</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-3.3.cc">crash-course-3.3.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a <tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt> class and provide it with an input method.</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-3.4.cc">crash-course-3.4.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Is is possible to write something like <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">foo.method1().method2()</span></tt> ?</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-3.5.cc">crash-course-3.5.cc</a></p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="inheritance">
<h1>4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Inheritance</h1>
<div class="section" id="basics">
<h2>4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Basics</h2>
<p>Inheritance is done at the class definition level by specifying the base class
and the type of inheritance.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span>                            <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar_public</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">public</span> <span class="n">Foo</span>        <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar_private</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">private</span> <span class="n">Foo</span>      <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar_protected</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">protected</span> <span class="n">Foo</span>  <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
<p><tt class="docutils literal">Bar_public</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">Bar_private</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">Bar_protected</tt> are derived from <tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt>.
<tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt> is the base class of <tt class="docutils literal">Bar_public</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">Bar_private</tt> and <tt class="docutils literal">Bar_protected</tt>.</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>In <tt class="docutils literal">Bar_public</tt>, public parts of <tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt> are public,
protected parts of <tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt> are protected</li>
<li>In <tt class="docutils literal">Bar_private</tt>, public and protected parts of <tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt> are private</li>
<li>In <tt class="docutils literal">Bar_protected</tt>, public and protected parts of <tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt> are protected</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="virtual-methods">
<h2>4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Virtual methods</h2>
<p>A <tt class="docutils literal">virtual</tt> function allows derived classes to replace the implementation
provided by the base class (yes, it is not automatic...). Non virtual methods
are resolved statically (at compile time) while virtual methods are resolved
dynamically (at run time).</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">method1</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="k">virtual</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">method2</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">};</span>

<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">public</span> <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Bar</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">method1</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">method2</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">};</span>

<span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">bar</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">new</span> <span class="n">Bar</span><span class="p">();</span>
<span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">method1</span><span class="p">();</span>
<span class="n">bar</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">method2</span><span class="p">();</span>
</pre>
<p>Make sure your destructor is virtual when you have derived class.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="abstract-classes">
<h2>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Abstract classes</h2>
<p>You can define pure virtual method that prohibits the base object to be
instantiated. Derived classes need then to implement the virtual method.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="k">virtual</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">};</span>

<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">public</span> <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="multiple-inheritance">
<h2>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Multiple inheritance</h2>
<p>A class may inherit from multiple base classes but you have to be careful:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span>               <span class="p">{</span> <span class="k">protected</span><span class="o">:</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar1</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">public</span> <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar2</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">public</span> <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Bar3</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">public</span> <span class="n">Bar1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">public</span> <span class="n">Bar2</span> <span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="n">method</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span>
       <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="c1">// !!! BAD
</span>    <span class="p">}</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
<p>In class Bar3, the <tt class="docutils literal">data</tt> reference is ambiguous since it could refer to
Bar1::data or Bar2::data. This problem is referred as the <strong>diamond
problem</strong>. You can eliminete the problem by explicitely specifying the data
origin (e.g. Bar1::data) or by using virtual inheritance in Bar1 and Bar2.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="id1">
<h2>4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</h2>
<ol class="arabic">
<li><p class="first">Write a <tt class="docutils literal">Bar</tt> class that inherits from a <tt class="docutils literal">Foo</tt> class and makes
constructor and destructor methods to print something when called.</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-4.1.cc">crash-course-4.1.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a <tt class="docutils literal">foo</tt> function and make it called from a class that has
a <tt class="docutils literal">foo</tt> method.</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-4.2.cc">crash-course-4.2.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a <tt class="docutils literal">Real</tt> base class and a derived <tt class="docutils literal">Integer</tt> class with all common
operators (+,-,*,/)</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-4.3.cc">crash-course-4.3.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a <tt class="docutils literal">Singleton</tt> class such that only one object of this class can be
created.</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-4.4.cc">crash-course-4.4.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a functor class</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-4.5.cc">crash-course-4.5.cc</a></p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="exceptions">
<h1>5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exceptions</h1>
<div class="section" id="the-zen-of-python">
<h2>5.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The Zen of Python</h2>
<p>(by Tim Peters)</p>
<blockquote>
<div class="line-block">
<div class="line">Beautiful is better than ugly.</div>
<div class="line">Explicit is better than implicit.</div>
<div class="line">Simple is better than complex.</div>
<div class="line">Complex is better than complicated.</div>
<div class="line">Flat is better than nested.</div>
<div class="line">Sparse is better than dense.</div>
<div class="line">Readability counts.</div>
<div class="line">Special cases aren't special enough to break the rules.</div>
<div class="line">Although practicality beats purity.</div>
<div class="line"><strong>Errors should never pass silently.</strong></div>
<div class="line"><strong>Unless explicitly silenced.</strong></div>
<div class="line">In the face of ambiguity, refuse the temptation to guess.</div>
<div class="line">There should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.</div>
<div class="line">Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.</div>
<div class="line">Now is better than never.</div>
<div class="line">Although never is often better than <em>right</em> now.</div>
<div class="line">If the implementation is hard to explain, it's a bad idea.</div>
<div class="line">If the implementation is easy to explain, it may be a good idea.</div>
<div class="line">Namespaces are one honking great idea -- let's do more of those!</div>
</div>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="section" id="catch-me-if-you-can">
<h2>5.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Catch me if you can</h2>
<p>You can catch any exception using the following structure:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">try</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="kt">float</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">array</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">new</span> <span class="kt">float</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">];</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">catch</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">bad_alloc</span> <span class="n">e</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cerr</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">e</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">what</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
<p>If the raised exception is different from the ones you're catching, program
will stop.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="creating-your-own-exception">
<h2>5.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Creating your own exception</h2>
<p>Creating a new exception is quite easy:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;stdexcept&gt;
</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Exception</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="k">public</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">runtime_error</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Exception</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">runtime_error</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;Exception&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="standard-exceptions">
<h2>5.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Standard exceptions</h2>
<p>There exist some standard exceptions that can be raised in some circumstances:</p>
<p><tt class="docutils literal">#include &lt;stdexcept&gt;</tt></p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>bad_alloc</li>
<li>bad_cast</li>
<li>bad_exception</li>
<li>bad_typeid</li>
<li>logic_error<ul>
<li>domain_error</li>
<li>invalid_argument</li>
<li>length_error</li>
<li>out_of_range</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>runtime_error<ul>
<li>range_error</li>
<li>overflow_error</li>
<li>underflow_error</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="id2">
<h2>5.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</h2>
<ol class="arabic">
<li><p class="first">How to handle a constructor that fails ?</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-5.1.cc">crash-course-5.1.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a program that raise 3 of the standard exceptions.</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-5.2.cc">crash-course-5.2.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a correct division function.</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-5.3.cc">crash-course-5.3.cc</a></p>
</li>
<li><p class="first">Write a <tt class="docutils literal">Integer</tt> (positive) class with proper exception handling
(<tt class="docutils literal">Overflow</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">Underflow</tt>, <tt class="docutils literal">DivideByZero</tt>, etc.)</p>
<p><strong>solution</strong>: <a class="reference external" href="sources/crash-course-5.4.cc">crash-course-5.4.cc</a></p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="streams">
<h1>6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Streams</h1>
<p>C++ provides input/output capability throught the iostream classes that provide
the stream concept (iXXXstream for input and oXXXstream for output).</p>
<div class="section" id="iostream-and-ios">
<h2>6.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;iostream and ios</h2>
<p>Screen outputs and keyboard inputs may be handled using the iostream header
file:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>

    <span class="kt">unsigned</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="n">age</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">65</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="k">static_cast</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">unsigned</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">age</span><span class="p">)</span>     <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="k">static_cast</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">void</span> <span class="k">const</span><span class="o">*&gt;</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">age</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>

    <span class="kt">double</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mf">3.14159</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">cout</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">unsetf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">floatfield</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="n">cout</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">precision</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">cout</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">precision</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">cout</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">setf</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">fixed</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">floatfield</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">f</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>

    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Enter a number, or -1 to quit: &quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="k">while</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cin</span> <span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span>
        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
        <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;You entered &quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="sc">'\n'</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="p">}</span>
    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="class-input-output">
<h2>6.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Class input/output</h2>
<p>You can implement a class input and output using friends functions:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="k">friend</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">ostream</span><span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="k">operator</span><span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">ostream</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Foo</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">that</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">output</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">that</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>
    <span class="k">friend</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">istream</span><span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="k">operator</span><span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">istream</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">foo</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">input</span> <span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">fred</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="p">}</span>

<span class="k">private</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="kt">double</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="working-with-files">
<h2>6.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Working with files</h2>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;fstream&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">ifstream</span> <span class="n">input</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="c1">// std::ifstream input( filename, std::ios::in | std::ios::binary);
</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">ofstream</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">filename</span> <span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="c1">// std::ofstream output( filename, std::ios::out | std::ios::binary);
</span>
    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="working-with-strings">
<h2>6.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Working with strings</h2>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;sstream&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">svalue</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">&quot;42.0&quot;</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">ivalue</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">istringstream</span> <span class="n">istream</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">ostringstream</span> <span class="n">ostream</span><span class="p">;</span>

    <span class="n">istream</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">str</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">svalue</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="n">istream</span> <span class="o">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="n">ivalue</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">svalue</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot; = &quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">ivalue</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>

    <span class="n">ostream</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">clear</span><span class="p">();</span>
    <span class="n">ostream</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">ivalue</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">ivalue</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot; = &quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">ostream</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">str</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>

    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="id3">
<h2>6.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</h2>
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li>Write an <tt class="docutils literal">itoa</tt> and an <tt class="docutils literal">atoi</tt> function</li>
<li>Write a foo class with some attributes and write functions for writing to
file and reading from file.</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="templates">
<h1>7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Templates</h1>
<p>Templates are special operators that specify that a class or a function is
written for one or several generic types that are not yet known. The format for
declaring function templates is:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>template &lt;typename identifier&gt; function_declaration;</li>
<li>template &lt;typename identifier&gt; class_declaration;</li>
</ul>
<p>You can have several templates and to actually use a class or function
template, you have to specify all unknown types:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">template</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="k">typename</span> <span class="n">T1</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
<span class="n">T1</span> <span class="n">foo1</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>

<span class="k">template</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="k">typename</span> <span class="n">T1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">typename</span> <span class="n">T2</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
<span class="n">T1</span> <span class="n">foo2</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>

<span class="k">template</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="k">typename</span> <span class="n">T1</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo3</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>


<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">foo1</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">();</span>
<span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">foo2</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="kt">float</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">();</span>
<span class="n">Foo</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">c</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre>
<div class="section" id="template-parameters">
<h2>7.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Template parameters</h2>
<p>There are three possible template types:</p>
<ul>
<li><p class="first"><strong>Type</strong></p>
<blockquote>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">template</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="k">typename</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>  <span class="n">T</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li><p class="first"><strong>Non-type</strong></p>
<blockquote>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">template</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">N</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>  <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li><p class="first"><strong>Template</strong></p>
<blockquote>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">template</span><span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="k">template</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="k">typename</span> <span class="n">T</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="cm">/* ... */</span> <span class="p">};</span>
</pre>
</blockquote>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="section" id="template-function">
<h2>7.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Template function</h2>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">template</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">T</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
<span class="n">T</span> <span class="n">max</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">T</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="k">return</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">?</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="cp">
#include &lt;sstream&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">max</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="mf">2.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">max</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">float</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="mf">2.2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">2.5</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="template-class">
<h2>7.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Template class</h2>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="k">template</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">T</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">T</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span>

<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">T</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span> <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="p">}</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">foo_int</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">float</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">foo_float</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="template-specialization">
<h2>7.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Template specialization</h2>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;iostream&gt;
</span>
<span class="k">template</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">T</span><span class="o">&gt;</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span> <span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">T</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">T</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span>
        <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Generic constructor called&quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="p">}</span>

<span class="k">template</span> <span class="o">&lt;&gt;</span>
<span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Foo</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">float</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">public</span><span class="o">:</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">float</span> <span class="n">value</span> <span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">:</span> <span class="n">_value</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span>
        <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;Specialized constructor called&quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="p">};</span>
<span class="p">}</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">foo_int</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">Foo</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">float</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">foo_float</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="id4">
<h2>7.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</h2>
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li>Write a generic swap function</li>
<li>Write a generic point structure</li>
<li>Write templated factorial, power and exponential functions
(exp(x)  = sum_n x^n/n!, exp(-x) = 1/exp(x))</li>
<li>Write a smart pointer class</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="standard-template-library">
<h1>8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Standard Template Library</h1>
<div class="section" id="containers">
<h2>8.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Containers</h2>
<p>STL containers are template classes that implement various ways of storing
elements and accessing them.</p>
<p><strong>Sequence containers</strong>:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>vector</li>
<li>deque</li>
<li>list</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Container adaptors</strong>:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>stack</li>
<li>queue</li>
<li>priority_queue</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Associative containers</strong>:</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li>set</li>
<li>multiset</li>
<li>map</li>
<li>multimap</li>
<li>bitset</li>
</ul>
<p>See <a class="reference external" href="http://www.cplusplus.com/reference/stl/">http://www.cplusplus.com/reference/stl/</a> for more information.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;vector&gt;
#include &lt;map&gt;
#include &lt;string&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">vector</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">push_back</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">push_back</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">push_back</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">);</span>

    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s">&quot;one&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s">&quot;two&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s">&quot;three&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">;</span>

    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="iterators">
<h2>8.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Iterators</h2>
<p>Iterators are a convebient tool to iterate over a container:</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;map&gt;
#include &lt;string&gt;
#include &lt;iostream&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s">&quot;one&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s">&quot;two&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s">&quot;three&quot;</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">;</span>

    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">map</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;::</span><span class="n">iterator</span> <span class="n">iter</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="k">for</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="n">iter</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">begin</span><span class="p">();</span> <span class="n">iter</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">end</span><span class="p">();</span> <span class="o">++</span><span class="n">iter</span> <span class="p">)</span>
    <span class="p">{</span>
        <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">cout</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;map[&quot;</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">iter</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="s">&quot;] = &quot;</span>
                  <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">iter</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">second</span> <span class="o">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">endl</span><span class="p">;</span>
    <span class="p">}</span>
    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="algorithms">
<h2>8.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Algorithms</h2>
<p>Algorithms from the STL offer fast, robust, tested and maintained code for a lot
of standard operations on ranged elements. Don't reinvent the wheel !</p>
<p>Have a look at <a class="reference external" href="http://r0d.developpez.com/articles/algos-stl-fr/">http://r0d.developpez.com/articles/algos-stl-fr/</a> (French) and
<a class="reference external" href="http://www.cplusplus.com/reference/algorithm/">http://www.cplusplus.com/reference/algorithm/</a> for an overview.</p>
<pre class="code c++ literal-block">
<span class="cp">#include &lt;vector&gt;
#include &lt;algorithm&gt;
</span>
<span class="kt">bool</span> <span class="n">compare</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="k">const</span> <span class="kt">int</span>  <span class="o">&amp;</span> <span class="n">second</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">&lt;</span> <span class="n">second</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>

<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">main</span><span class="p">(</span> <span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">**</span><span class="n">argv</span> <span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">vector</span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="o">&gt;</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">);</span>
    <span class="n">std</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">sort</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">v</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">begin</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="n">v</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">end</span><span class="p">(),</span> <span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">compare</span><span class="p">);</span>

    <span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
<div class="section" id="id5">
<h2>8.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Exercices</h2>
<blockquote>
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li>Write a template stack class using the STL vector class</li>
<li>Write a generic vector class with iterators and benchmark it againt the STL
vector class</li>
</ol>
</blockquote>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="external-links">
<h1>9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;External links</h1>
<ul>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">C++ FAQ — Frequently Asked Questions</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://www.parashift.com/c++-faq-lite/">http://www.parashift.com/c++-faq-lite/</a></div>
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">Boost free peer-reviewed portable C++ source libraries</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://www.boost.org/">http://www.boost.org/</a></div>
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">Bjarne Stroustrup homepage</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://www2.research.att.com/~bs/">http://www2.research.att.com/~bs/</a></div>
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">Complete reference on C++ Standard Library</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp">http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp</a></div>
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">C++11 main features</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B11">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B11</a></div>
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">The definitive C++ book guide</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://stackoverflow.com/questions/388242/the-definitive-c-book-guide-and-list">http://stackoverflow.com/questions/388242/the-definitive-c-book-guide-and-list</a></div>
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">comp.lang.c++</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.c++/topics">http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.c++/topics</a></div>
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">GNU make</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://www.gnu.org/s/make/manual/make.html">http://www.gnu.org/s/make/manual/make.html</a></div>
</div>
</li>
<li><div class="first line-block">
<div class="line">Les meilleurs cours et tutoriaux (in <strong>French</strong> as you may have already guessed...)</div>
<div class="line"><a class="reference external" href="http://cpp.developpez.com/cours/">http://cpp.developpez.com/cours/</a></div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>